Brain-Computer Interface: From Experimental Cutting-Edge Technology to Large-Scale Implementation, Opportunities and Challenges Coexist

I. Introduction: Brain-Computer Interfaces on the Eve of Mass Production

December 31, 2025, Musk announced significant news via the X platform, clearly stating that his brain-computer interface company Neuralink will commence large-scale mass production of devices in 2026 and implement a highly streamlined, almost fully automated surgical procedure. This news, reported by global authoritative media such as Reuters and Business Insider, quickly caused a stir in the industry, marking a critical juncture where brain-computer interface technology officially transitions from the experimental phase to commercial mass production preparation. December 31, 2025, Musk announced significant news via the X platform, clearly stating that his brain-computer interface company Neuralink will commence large-scale mass production of devices in 2026 and implement a highly streamlined, almost fully automated surgical procedure. This news, reported by global authoritative media such as Reuters and Business Insider, quickly caused a stir in the industry, marking a critical juncture where brain-computer interface technology officially transitions from the experimental phase to commercial mass production preparation.

Currently, brain-computer interfaces have become a core arena for global tech giants and research institutions to compete in, with Elon Musk's Neuralink, Sam Altman's investment in Murts Labs, and others actively making strategic moves. From medical rehabilitation to human-machine symbiosis, from technological breakthroughs to ethical questioning, brain-computer interfaces are not only reshaping the relationship between humanity and technology but may also redefine the very form of existence for life. Currently, brain-computer interfaces have become a core arena for global tech giants and research institutions to compete in, with Elon Musk's Neuralink, Sam Altman's investment in Murts Labs, and others actively making strategic moves. From medical rehabilitation to human-machine symbiosis, from technological breakthroughs to ethical questioning, brain-computer interfaces are not only reshaping the relationship between humanity and technology but may also redefine the very form of existence for life.

II. Technical Foundation: The Game of Two Paths and Core Evaluation Dimensions

Core Principle: The Signal Bridge Between the Brain and Machines

The essence of Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a bridge connecting the brain to external machines. The human brain consists of approximately 86 billion neurons. All thoughts and actions transmit information through neuronal discharges. The core task of a brain-computer interface is to read (decode) and write (encode) these neural electrical signals, enabling interaction between "thoughts" and external devices. Currently, this technology can already read brain signals from paralyzed patients, and after decoding, control a mouse, play games, manipulate robotic arms to grasp objects, and other basic applications. The essence of Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) is a bridge connecting the brain to external machines. The human brain consists of approximately 86 billion neurons. All thoughts and actions transmit information through neuronal discharges. The core task of a brain-computer interface is to read (decode) and write (encode) these neural electrical signals, enabling interaction between "thoughts" and external devices. Currently, this technology can already read brain signals from paralyzed patients, and after decoding, control a mouse, play games, manipulate robotic arms to grasp objects, and other basic applications.

Divergence in Technical Approaches: Invasive vs. Non-Invasive

Currently, brain-computer interface technology is primarily divided into two major pathways, each with its own strengths and weaknesses in terms of safety, signal quality, and application scenarios, creating a distinct competitive landscape.

Invasive Brain-Computer Interface is represented by Neuralink. Its core method involves creating a coin-sized opening in the skull, penetrating the skin, skull, and dura mater to insert electrodes finer than a human hair directly into the cerebral cortex to collect signals. The significant advantage of this approach is high signal quality, as the electrodes can make direct contact with neurons; however, its drawbacks are equally prominent, being invasive and carrying surgical risks and long-term biocompatibility issues. Invasive Brain-Computer Interface is represented by Neuralink. Its core method involves creating a coin-sized opening in the skull, penetrating the skin, skull, and dura mater to insert electrodes finer than a human hair directly into the cerebral cortex to collect signals. The significant advantage of this approach is high signal quality, as the electrodes can make direct contact with neurons; however, its drawbacks are equally prominent, being invasive and carrying surgical risks and long-term biocompatibility issues.

(Semi) Non-Invasive Brain-Computer Interface is represented by the ultrasound technology adopted by Murts Labs, which is invested in by Sam Altman. It does not require insertion into the brain, being completely non-invasive or only semi-invasive (not penetrating the dura mater). It utilizes ultrasound to collect blood flow signals around neurons during their activity (neural activity requires blood supply). Its greatest advantage is that it causes minimal damage to the brain, with the difficulty of semi-invasive surgery being comparable to "picking one's nose"; however, the core challenge lies in the 0.5 - 1.5 second delay between the blood flow signal and the neural electrical signal, making decoding more difficult. (Semi) Non-Invasive Brain-Computer Interface is represented by the ultrasound technology adopted by Murts Labs, which is invested in by Sam Altman. It does not require insertion into the brain, being completely non-invasive or only semi-invasive (not penetrating the dura mater). It utilizes ultrasound to collect blood flow signals around neurons during their activity (neural activity requires blood supply). Its greatest advantage is that it causes minimal damage to the brain, with the difficulty of semi-invasive surgery being comparable to "picking one's nose"; however, the core challenge lies in the 0.5 - 1.5 second delay between the blood flow signal and the neural electrical signal, making decoding more difficult.

Key evaluation dimension: Resolution determines the level of technological advancement.

There are two core dimensions for evaluating the development level of brain-computer interfaces: one is spatial resolution, which refers to the number of neurons that can be monitored; the other is temporal resolution, which refers to the frequency of capturing neuron discharges per second, requiring monitoring standards at the microsecond level. There are two core dimensions for evaluating the development level of brain-computer interfaces: one is spatial resolution, which refers to the number of neurons that can be monitored; the other is temporal resolution, which refers to the frequency of capturing neuron discharges per second, requiring monitoring standards at the microsecond level.

From the current technological comparison, Neuralink's invasive approach has achieved a temporal resolution of 10 microseconds. In terms of spatial resolution, with 64 electrode threads and 1024 contact points, it can capture signals from approximately 2000 neurons in total. However, its limitations are significant. Compared to the total of 86 billion neurons, 2000 is merely "a drop in the ocean." The detection area only accounts for about 1.3/1000 of the brain's surface area, and the insertion depth is only 3-5 millimeters (the brain's depth is about 80 millimeters). In contrast, the non-invasive approach of ultrasonic brain-computer interfaces holds an advantage in spatial coverage. Theoretically, one probe can cover 1/4 of the brain, and four probes can achieve full coverage. However, its shortcomings of poor temporal resolution and a signal delay of about 1 second are difficult to avoid. From the current technological comparison, Neuralink's invasive approach has achieved a temporal resolution of 10 microseconds. In terms of spatial resolution, with 64 electrode threads and 1024 contact points, it can capture signals from approximately 2000 neurons in total. However, its limitations are significant. Compared to the total of 86 billion neurons, 2000 is merely "a drop in the ocean." The detection area only accounts for about 1.3/1000 of the brain's surface area, and the insertion depth is only 3-5 millimeters (the brain's depth is about 80 millimeters). In contrast, the non-invasive approach of ultrasonic brain-computer interfaces holds an advantage in spatial coverage. Theoretically, one probe can cover 1/4 of the brain, and four probes can achieve full coverage. However, its shortcomings of poor temporal resolution and a signal delay of about 1 second are difficult to avoid.

III. Global Competition: Mass Production Ambitions and Technological Breakthroughs

From technological breakthroughs to large-scale implementation.

Since its establishment in 2016, Neuralink has undergone nearly a decade of development, with its valuation exceeding $9 billion, a team size of nearly 300 people, and has completed the full cycle of hardware development, chip iteration, animal experiments, and human clinical trials. The core support for its 2026 mass production plan is a series of technological breakthroughs and milestone achievements. Since its establishment in 2016, Neuralink has undergone nearly a decade of development, with its valuation exceeding $9 billion, a team size of nearly 300 people, and has completed the full cycle of hardware development, chip iteration, animal experiments, and human clinical trials. The core support for its 2026 mass production plan is a series of technological breakthroughs and milestone achievements.

Core Technical Parameters: Neuralink's implant chip is the N1 chip, measuring approximately 23mm×8mm (the size of a coin). It integrates 1024 electrode channels, each capable of independently collecting neuronal firing signals. The electrodes are distributed across 64 flexible threads, each 20 times thinner than a human hair. The accompanying R1 surgical robot possesses micron-level operational precision and can insert electrodes into specified locations at a speed of six threads per minute while avoiding dense brain blood vessels. Core Technical Parameters: Neuralink's implant chip is the N1 chip, measuring approximately 23mm×8mm (the size of a coin). It integrates 1024 electrode channels, each capable of independently collecting neuronal firing signals. The electrodes are distributed across 64 flexible threads, each 20 times thinner than a human hair. The accompanying R1 surgical robot possesses micron-level operational precision and can insert electrodes into specified locations at a speed of six threads per minute while avoiding dense brain blood vessels.

Latest Surgical Breakthrough: Electrode wires can directly penetrate the dura mater without resection, which Musk calls a "major breakthrough." The new generation of surgical robots has reduced the single implantation time from 17 seconds to 1.5 seconds. The entire procedure can be completed within 1 hour, with the goal of achieving outpatient surgery-level fully automated operation in the future, eliminating the need for surgeons. Latest Surgical Breakthrough: Electrode wires can directly penetrate the dura mater without resection, which Musk calls a "major breakthrough." The new generation of surgical robots has reduced the single implantation time from 17 seconds to 1.5 seconds. The entire procedure can be completed within 1 hour, with the goal of achieving outpatient surgery-level fully automated operation in the future, eliminating the need for surgeons.

Clinical Trial Progress: As of late 2025 to early 2026, approximately 12-20 patients have received the device implant (Musk mentioned close to 20). The participants primarily include patients with severe paralysis, ALS, and similar conditions. Early patients, such as the first recipient Noland Arbaugh, have been using the device for over 21 months, with stable and continuously improving functionality. Some patients can now control computer cursors, type, play games, browse the web, post on social media, and even operate robotic arms to perform physical actions like eating and grasping objects through thought. Furthermore, some patients have begun taking university courses, delivering speeches, or using CAD software again to design parts, enabling them to work from home.Clinical Trial Progress: As of late 2025 to early 2026, approximately 12-20 patients have received the device implant (Musk mentioned close to 20). The participants primarily include patients with severe paralysis, ALS, and similar conditions. Early patients, such as the first recipient Noland Arbaugh, have been using the device for over 21 months, with stable and continuously improving functionality. Some patients can now control computer cursors, type, play games, browse the web, post on social media, and even operate robotic arms to perform physical actions like eating and grasping objects through thought. Furthermore, some patients have begun taking university courses, delivering speeches, or using CAD software again to design parts, enabling them to work from home.

Three-Step Roadmap (2026-2028): The first step, "Telepathy," is currently underway, enabling patients with spinal cord injuries to control devices like phones and computers with their brains, completing the commercialization loop; the second step, "Blindsight," is a key focus for 2026, which involves bypassing the eyes to encode images captured by a camera into electrical signals directly input into the brain's visual cortex, restoring vision and even enabling infrared/ultraviolet/radar vision; the third step, "Deep," targets deep brain regions to treat diseases such as depression and Parkinson's, touching upon the core domains of human emotion and consciousness regulation. Three-Step Roadmap (2026-2028): The first step, "Telepathy," is currently underway, enabling patients with spinal cord injuries to control devices like phones and computers with their brains, completing the commercialization loop; the second step, "Blindsight," is a key focus for 2026, which involves bypassing the eyes to encode images captured by a camera into electrical signals directly input into the brain's visual cortex, restoring vision and even enabling infrared/ultraviolet/radar vision; the third step, "Deep," targets deep brain regions to treat diseases such as depression and Parkinson's, touching upon the core domains of human emotion and consciousness regulation.

Milestone Achievements in 2025: Completed the first implantations in the Middle East/UK/Canada, obtained FDA Breakthrough Device Designation for speech restoration, secured $650 million in financing, significantly improved the precision of the new-generation surgical robot, and laid the foundation for mass production in 2026. Milestone Achievements in 2025: Completed the first implantations in the Middle East/UK/Canada, obtained FDA Breakthrough Device Designation for speech restoration, secured $650 million in financing, significantly improved the precision of the new-generation surgical robot, and laid the foundation for mass production in 2026.

IV. Current Limitations: Multiple Gaps Remain Before Achieving "Consciousness Immortality"

Although brain-computer interface technology is advancing rapidly, its current capabilities still have significant limitations, and there is a long distance to the long-term vision of "consciousness immortality". Although brain-computer interface technology is advancing rapidly, its current capabilities still have significant limitations, and there is a long distance to the long-term vision of "consciousness immortality".

Signal Reading: Only able to "eavesdrop" on sporadic instructions.

If we compare the brain to a command center with 86 billion staff members, current brain-computer interfaces are like poorly placed, low-signal eavesdropping devices in a corner. They can only "hear" a few dozen nearby, loud staff members uttering scattered words (such as "raise hand" or "move"), and then infer intentions from these words to control external devices. Their application remains limited to helping paralyzed patients improve their quality of life, and they cannot achieve more complex conscious interaction. If we compare the brain to a command center with 86 billion staff members, current brain-computer interfaces are like poorly placed, low-signal eavesdropping devices in a corner. They can only "hear" a few dozen nearby, loud staff members uttering scattered words (such as "raise hand" or "move"), and then infer intentions from these words to control external devices. Their application remains limited to helping paralyzed patients improve their quality of life, and they cannot achieve more complex conscious interaction.

Signal Writing: Far from Achieving "Knowledge Upload"

Current technology is far from capable of directly uploading knowledge or memories into the brain like in science fiction movies. There are three core reasons: first, insufficient resolution prevents decoding complex consciousness and memories; second, the brain's structure is unique, employing an "in-memory computing" model where consciousness and memory result from the combined action of multiple brain regions, not encoding by a single area; third, human understanding of how the brain works is less than 1%. Current writing applications are limited to stimulating known specific brain region neurons through electrical or ultrasonic means, used for treating neurological diseases such as pain, insomnia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, epilepsy, etc. Current technology is far from capable of directly uploading knowledge or memories into the brain like in science fiction movies. There are three core reasons: first, insufficient resolution prevents decoding complex consciousness and memories; second, the brain's structure is unique, employing an "in-memory computing" model where consciousness and memory result from the combined action of multiple brain regions, not encoding by a single area; third, human understanding of how the brain works is less than 1%. Current writing applications are limited to stimulating known specific brain region neurons through electrical or ultrasonic means, used for treating neurological diseases such as pain, insomnia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, epilepsy, etc.

Personalized Challenge: Individual Differences in Signal Encoding.

Brain-Computer Interfaces possess highly personalized characteristics, with each individual's brain signal encoding method being completely different. For example, the same signal may represent "kicking a leg" in brain A, while in brain B it may represent "drinking water." Therefore, subjects need to undergo long-term training after surgery to allow the machine to "learn" their unique signal patterns in order to achieve effective control, which also increases the difficulty of widespread technology adoption. Brain-Computer Interfaces possess highly personalized characteristics, with each individual's brain signal encoding method being completely different. For example, the same signal may represent "kicking a leg" in brain A, while in brain B it may represent "drinking water." Therefore, subjects need to undergo long-term training after surgery to allow the machine to "learn" their unique signal patterns in order to achieve effective control, which also increases the difficulty of widespread technology adoption.

V. Future Prospects: The Integrated Vision of Brain-Computer Interface and Embodied Intelligence

The future development of brain-computer interfaces hinges on technological integration, specifically the synergistic advancement of BCI + artificial intelligence (rapid decoding) + **embodied intelligence (manipulating the physical world)**. Industry predictions suggest that in the more distant future (e.g., 30 years from now), if the following breakthroughs can be achieved, it may open up entirely new possibilities for "consciousness continuation": observing every action and discharge of all 86 billion neurons, fully understanding the brain's operational mechanisms, and achieving the transfer of the consciousness carrier. The future development of brain-computer interfaces hinges on technological integration, specifically the synergistic advancement of BCI + artificial intelligence (rapid decoding) + **embodied intelligence (manipulating the physical world)**. Industry predictions suggest that in the more distant future (e.g., 30 years from now), if the following breakthroughs can be achieved, it may open up entirely new possibilities for "consciousness continuation": observing every action and discharge of all 86 billion neurons, fully understanding the brain's operational mechanisms, and achieving the transfer of the consciousness carrier.

This transfer of consciousness carriers may manifest in two forms: one is placing memories and consciousness into robots, continuing thought processes and playing human roles; the other is like "grafting," where the central nervous system is connected to new carriers such as bionic bodies through brain-computer interfaces to continue "living." Musk further proposes the ultimate goal: achieving a whole-brain interface, increasing the number of electrodes to over 25,000, realizing direct interconnection between the human brain and the cloud, bridging the vast gap between human language output bandwidth (tens of bits per second) and AI data throughput (trillions of bits per second), and preventing humans from losing competitiveness in the future. This transfer of consciousness carriers may manifest in two forms: one is placing memories and consciousness into robots, continuing thought processes and playing human roles; the other is like "grafting," where the central nervous system is connected to new carriers such as bionic bodies through brain-computer interfaces to continue "living." Musk further proposes the ultimate goal: achieving a whole-brain interface, increasing the number of electrodes to over 25,000, realizing direct interconnection between the human brain and the cloud, bridging the vast gap between human language output bandwidth (tens of bits per second) and AI data throughput (trillions of bits per second), and preventing humans from losing competitiveness in the future.

From a short-term perspective, 2026 will be a pivotal year for the advancement of brain-computer interface technology: Neuralink's Blindsight project is expected to commence its first patient trial, with Musk expressing "high confidence" in restoring full bodily motor function (animal experiments are complete, human validation is imminent); the scale of clinical trials worldwide will further expand, with the safety and efficacy of the technology receiving more validation. From a short-term perspective, 2026 will be a pivotal year for the advancement of brain-computer interface technology: Neuralink's Blindsight project is expected to commence its first patient trial, with Musk expressing "high confidence" in restoring full bodily motor function (animal experiments are complete, human validation is imminent); the scale of clinical trials worldwide will further expand, with the safety and efficacy of the technology receiving more validation.

VI. Ethical and Social Challenges: Questioning Boundaries in the Rapid Advancement of Technology

Brain-computer interfaces, while driving human progress, also bring a series of ethical and social challenges, becoming an unavoidable core issue. Brain-computer interfaces, while driving human progress, also bring a series of ethical and social challenges, becoming an unavoidable core issue.

Risk of Social Division: Death Equity and Intelligence Gap

If brain-computer interface technology advances further, it may break humanity's last line of fairness—death. During its widespread adoption, if high-end brain implants that enhance memory and computational power emerge and are expensive, it could lead to intellectual wealth disparity, creating an insurmountable gap. "Knowledge changes destiny" might be distorted into "topping up changes species." If brain-computer interface technology advances further, it may break humanity's last line of fairness—death. During its widespread adoption, if high-end brain implants that enhance memory and computational power emerge and are expensive, it could lead to intellectual wealth disparity, creating an insurmountable gap. "Knowledge changes destiny" might be distorted into "topping up changes species."

Privacy and the Crisis of Free Will: The Risks of Datafying Thought

When the brain is directly connected to the internet, thoughts, memories, and dreams will become data streams that can be stored and analyzed. This brings two core risks: first, security vulnerabilities, where hackers could invade the brain, and if the device is infected with a virus or attacked, humans might "crash" or be controlled by AI; second, commercial alienation and manipulation of free will, where commercial companies could implant advertisements or suggestions into the subconscious, manipulating human desires and choices, completely undermining the foundation of free will. When the brain is directly connected to the internet, thoughts, memories, and dreams will become data streams that can be stored and analyzed. This brings two core risks: first, security vulnerabilities, where hackers could invade the brain, and if the device is infected with a virus or attacked, humans might "crash" or be controlled by AI; second, commercial alienation and manipulation of free will, where commercial companies could implant advertisements or suggestions into the subconscious, manipulating human desires and choices, completely undermining the foundation of free will.

Controversies in Technology Ethics: Experimental Costs and the Pace of Development

Neuralink's development journey has been marked by numerous ethical controversies: According to reports, since 2018, in animal experiments involving pigs, sheep, monkeys, and others, issues such as chip fractures, intracranial infections, and cerebral cortex damage have led to the deaths of at least 1500 animals; malfunctions have also occurred in human trials, where the first patient, Noland Arbaugh, experienced partial electrode retraction within weeks after surgery, causing the chip to fail, and the fourth patient exhibited implant rejection and even reported suicidal tendencies. Furthermore, of the eight scientists at the company's inception, only two remained by 2022. Those who left believed that scientific development should proceed step by step, while the company's set timeline was too aggressive. Neuralink's development journey has been marked by numerous ethical controversies: According to reports, since 2018, in animal experiments involving pigs, sheep, monkeys, and others, issues such as chip fractures, intracranial infections, and cerebral cortex damage have led to the deaths of at least 1500 animals; malfunctions have also occurred in human trials, where the first patient, Noland Arbaugh, experienced partial electrode retraction within weeks after surgery, causing the chip to fail, and the fourth patient exhibited implant rejection and even reported suicidal tendencies. Furthermore, of the eight scientists at the company's inception, only two remained by 2022. Those who left believed that scientific development should proceed step by step, while the company's set timeline was too aggressive.

The Original Intent of Technology: The Warmth of Life's Continuation

The perspective of ALS patient and former JD.com Vice President Cai Lei reveals the warm undertone of technology: to liberate life from the constraints of the physical body, allowing love and attachment to continue in a more enduring way. This also reminds the industry that discussing the essence of consciousness immortality and human-machine coexistence is not about breaking the fairness of death, but about endowing life with new possibilities and continuity. Technological development must adhere to the bottom line of humanistic care. The perspective of ALS patient and former JD.com Vice President Cai Lei reveals the warm undertone of technology: to liberate life from the constraints of the physical body, allowing love and attachment to continue in a more enduring way. This also reminds the industry that discussing the essence of consciousness immortality and human-machine coexistence is not about breaking the fairness of death, but about endowing life with new possibilities and continuity. Technological development must adhere to the bottom line of humanistic care.

VII. Conclusion: Standing at the Threshold of an Era Redefining Humanity

2026 is highly likely to be the year when Neuralink truly transitions from "experimental black technology" to a "scalable medical product," and will also become a critical juncture in the global competition for brain-computer interface technology. Musk's mass production plan and the vision of "human-machine symbiosis" are accelerating their implementation, securing a significant position in the global technological race. 2026 is highly likely to be the year when Neuralink truly transitions from "experimental black technology" to a "scalable medical product," and will also become a critical juncture in the global competition for brain-computer interface technology. Musk's mass production plan and the vision of "human-machine symbiosis" are accelerating their implementation, securing a significant position in the global technological race.

We are standing on the threshold of an era that moves from repairing humans to enhancing humans, and may potentially redefine humanity. Regarding brain-computer interface technology, we should maintain awe but not resist it—technology itself is neither good nor evil; the key lies in the people who master it. In the future, it is essential to prioritize the establishment of technology rules related to the brain, to prevent the digital world from becoming a "cyber paradise" for the few and a "digital cage" for the many, ensuring that technology truly serves the continuation of life and the enhancement of well-being for all humanity. We are standing on the threshold of an era that moves from repairing humans to enhancing humans, and may potentially redefine humanity. Regarding brain-computer interface technology, we should maintain awe but not resist it—technology itself is neither good nor evil; the key lies in the people who master it. In the future, it is essential to prioritize the establishment of technology rules related to the brain, to prevent the digital world from becoming a "cyber paradise" for the few and a "digital cage" for the many, ensuring that technology truly serves the continuation of life and the enhancement of well-being for all humanity.